However, once autocatalyzing molecules exist it is possible to begin the process of natural selection. When the curvature becomes sufficiently great in the positive direction, we have a black hole, which is a direct exit from the mini-universe into the larger universe which contains it - a bursting of the bubble. However, the molecules are themselves constantly changing. Most of the surface would remain relatively unoxidized for hundreds of millions of years. Starting from extremely high density and temperature, space expanded, the universe cooled, and the simplest elements formed. However, the connections between the atoms in the cell are much more numerous than in the sun, so that the cell seems much more complex than the sun. Some of the current missions are discussed. A quasarlike red shift can occur if the object emitting light is extremely massive or receding at a very high velocity. Very small stars that never quite catch fire are called "brown dwarfs.". Therefore, the second law of thermodynamics apparently states that evolution cannot occur in a closed system. 46.226.14.210. Therefore, the ladder of evolution is one in which the lower rungs are continuously being disassembled and used to build the upper ones. When helium fuses it undergoes a series of complex nuclear reactions which eventually lead to carbon and oxygen. Fred Hoyle has done some modeling with a universe in which the gravitational constant decreases one part in 10 per year [357]. It radiates more energy than it receives from the sun, but it does not have enough mass to engender a nuclear reaction even at its center. Evolution of the Universe Evolution of Matter. The way molecules can grow, almost without limit, is by polymerization. Although there may not be a sufficient concentration of nutrients at some particular point in space and time for an autocatalyzing molecule to reproduce itself, if it can absorb these nutrients and store them, then eventually it can have enough nutrients for two copies of itself. There must be at least two complementary copies. The larger planets, such as Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, will have enough of a gravitational field to retain part of their hydrogen and helium atmosphere, although, except for Jupiter, most of this atmosphere will be lost to outer space. Light travels at a finite speed of about 300,000 kilometers per second. In this section, we discuss what evidence scientists have been able to gather about the early universe and its evolution to present time. Evolution by natural selection requires a very delicate balance in mutation rates, death rates, and reproduction rates, or it will not take place [245]. Cosmic evolution involves elementary particles becoming organized into atoms and eventually into galaxies, stars, and planets. It represents a monotonic decrease in the entropy of a system. However, chemically bonded hydrogen is retained as in H2O. This model, first proposed in the late 1940s by Gold, Bondi, and Hoyle [771], represents a radical departure from orthodox cosmology, because in order to explain all the observed facts it assumes an unobserved fact. At best, the scientific paradigm is true but incomplete. Unable to display preview. The Belgian priest and cosmologist Georges Lemaître was probably the first to propose a specific model for the Big Bang itself (Figure 1). Proteins and Nucleic Acids Stars that are much more massive than the sun are the ones which produce most of the elements between carbon and iron. Therefore, it might be that the protocell was a generalized molecule with properties of both proteins and nucleic acids to start. This agrees with observation. This direct perception of self in an evolutionary context expresses itself in religion and art. The centrifugal force causes it to become disc-shaped, similar to a galaxy. In between there is a whole spectrum of physical, chemical, biological, and psychosocial evolution. In short, cosmology can currently be said to be in a state of rapid change with no clearly superior model, although the Big Bang is by far the most popular model among scientists. If we look at these models, starting from Genesis in the Bible and ending with the steady state model of Hannes Alfven [10], which assumes a universe permeated by plasmas, we see that all of these models had to be radically altered as new facts were discovered. Chemical evolution can only go so far by the same process by which amino acids are created. Furthermore, some empirical evidence, such as the residual black-body radiation, imply that there was only one Big Bang and not an infinite series. will determine in part whether the steady state model is accepted in some form or is rejected. This latter statement of the concept of entropy was formulated by Boltzman. Although the quasars and the black holes are both unstable, within the larger universe the quasars play the role of protons and the black holes play the role of electrons, or they are some other analogue of elementary particles. The "God," or "history," hypothesis may be a scientifically inadequate way of describing what existed before the Big Bang. Springer, Dordrecht. Evolution by natural selection involves three essential factors - reproduction, mutation, and death. Cite as. In the early universe, dark matter gradually gathers in huge filaments under the effects of gravity, collapsing faster than ordinary (baryonic) matter because its collapse is not slowed by radiation pressure. I review a technique for interpreting faint galaxy data which traces the evolution with cosmic time of the galaxy luminosity density, as determined from several deep spectroscopic samples and the Hubble Deep Field imaging survey. Proteins and Nucleic Acids. hydrogen atoms, but there are relatively few relations and connections between them in the form of helium and heavier elements. Even the residual black-body radiation can be made compatible with this model. When this balance is achieved, then entropy is overcome step by step. The hydrogen nuclei continue to fuse in the upper regions of the star. In these objects a collapsed star, after undergoing a supernova explosion, is so massive and its gravity so strong that nothing can escape from it - not radio waves, light, or particles. Eventually molecules must become self-reproducing in order to sustain increasing complexity. But intuitive appeal and satisfaction have little to do with scientific validity. Since the galaxies are receding from one another, there must be an outside force. Then this model in turn becomes the "true" model. Given that there are several species of autocatalyzing molecules spontaneously created through deterministic chemical reactions, then those molecules which can most effectively catalyze copies of themselves will take up more of the supply of available simple molecules to make copies of themselves while the other molecules are eventually disassociated into their constituents, which in turn are catalyzed into copies by the more effective molecules before they themselves disassociate. The first question which comes to mind is, "Where do the other elements come from?" The earth and all the inner planets will be destroyed while the outer giants, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, together with their moons, may become more hospitable. The complex molecules will spontaneously decay into simpler molecules at room temperature unless some mechanism is making the reaction go in the other way. When the curvature is sufficiently great in the negative direction, we have an entrance from the larger universe into the smaller universe. In order to see humanity's place in the cosmic scheme of things and better understand the total process of general evolution, we begin to trace the process which led from matter to us. This means that these molecules serve as templates by means of which simpler molecules are induced to organize themselves into complementary replicas of the original molecule. THEME: Structure and Evolution of the Universe This image captures the spectacle of matter and antimatter propelled to near the speed of light by the Crab pulsar, a rapidly rotating neutron star the size of Manhattan. By the time we come to a system of cells such as a human being, we have information and complexity greatly exceeding that of the sun. Once they began interacting symbiotically, their concentrations would increase, and there would be a higher probability of a protein sphere capturing the right nucleic acid and forming what amounted to a protocell. For now we consider stars as particles of matter which makeup the systems called galaxies, just as galaxies were considered particles in the system of the observable universe. The frequency of bubble formation changes with time because the relationships between the physical constants are changing as their values change. He has also shown that inthe long run black holes are stable in proportion to their size. More will be said of stellar evolution later. But perhaps the destiny of all galaxies is to collapse into black holes. The mini-Big Bangs within our own universe are not the supernovae but the creation of quasars. Although the universe is dynamic and in constant progress, one part of the universe looks very much like any other part, and from each part the universe appears the same. The lighter molecules of H2 and He were lost to outer space. However, this "law" is based on the fact that no one has ever actually observed the creation or destruction of energy and not on some more fundamental premise. Symbiosis. It has ceased to exist. The mutations which increase the reproductive efficiency of any molecule may be among the least probable. Darwinism in all its forms may be an incomplete description of the evolutionary process. As the comets are used up, the crashes become less frequent, but are still going on today. The quasars are more probable at the periphery of the bubble and represent a puncturing of the bubble from without. Another major contributor was George Gamow, a refugee from Soviet communism in the early 1930s. For our purposes, we will regard the complexity of a system to be a direct function of (1) the total number of components of a system, (2) the number of different connections and relationships between the components, (3) the number of differences between all the components and connectors, and (4) all other information in the system. ", The most amazing aspect of this question is that it can be answered at all. The two exceptions are that (1) matter in the universe seems to be receding from us and itself (i.e., distant clumps of matter all recede from one another) at ever greater speeds in direct proportion to its distance from us and itself respectively, and (2) there are some peculiar objects called quasars which seem to be more numerous at greater distances, i.e., quasars seem to have been more numerous when the universe was younger. … The residual black-body radiation is the average temperature to which the universe was heated by the original Big Bang. Therefore, all three components must be present for the system to evolve by natural selection. Furthermore, these Quasi Stellar Objects (QSO's), or "quasars" as they are called, sometimes vary in intensity periodically with some periods as short as a day. They are less likely to exist early in the evolutionary process in competition with the simpler autocatalyzing molecules. This amplifies the tiny inhomogeneities (irregularities) in the density of the universe … Attempts at mathematical treatment usually lead to concentration of the entire mass of the universe at a point. Each Big Bang creates a mini-universe of its own, a bubble within the larger universe. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves. Note the presence of dark energy, dark matter, and the prevalence of normal matter … The causes and results of any mutation are uncertain. This super-dense mass is sometimes called "the primordial atom" or the "cosmic egg." We can imagine but not yet create a polymer which has properties of both proteins and nucleic acids. The universe is infinite in space and time. There are other astrophysical evolutionary processes, such as slow neutron capture in the envelopes of the red giants. In the previous sections of this chapter, we traced the evolution of the universe progressively further back in time. Fred Hoyle is currently adjusting the theory to compensate for these discrepancies [771]. Protons and electrons are being generated in our universe from the quasars. At the micro-level we see the same pattern where quarks, electrons, and protons join together in a system to form our local mini-universe. These include: historical perspective of biological evolution; cultural aspects of exobiology, cosmic, chemical and biological evolution, molecular biology, geochronology, biogeochemistry, biogeology, and planetology. Our solar system formed about 5 billion years ago when the Universe was about 65% of its present size (Figure 5a-2). Chemical evolution involves atoms becoming organized into molecules. The dark matter’s gravitational field controls the evolution of a cluster. Actually it is space that is expanding and taking matter along with it. As matter falls into a black hole it emits massive amounts of radiation in a type of death scream until gravity overcomes it. As it contracts it begins to heat up from the increasing number of collisions between the ever denser hydrogen atoms. Actually all light is shifted at least slightly to the red by gravity. In the case of the autocatalyzing molecules this means a breakdown of those systems into the simpler compounds which compose them. This very simple model of the universe makes reasonably good predictions about many observed natural phenomena, such as the age of the universe and the observed background energy of the universe, i.e., the residual background black-body radiation from the Big Bang. As indicated earlier, Jupiter and possibly Mars may be exceptions [360]. Eventually the bubble bursts and the laws of the mini-universe become the laws of the universe within which it is contained. The larger the star, the sooner it will disintegrate and the hotter it will burn. Such a star would quickly explode, and what remained either would become a black hole and/or condense into separate new stars. However, very infrequently a change will increase the autocatalyzing efficacy of the molecule; this mutation will quickly replace all its brothers. We can answer this question because we can actually look back in time and see what the universe was like billions of years ago. This could not be detected in a laboratory, but it would have enormous consequences for all cosmological models, often reversing predictions. This in turn caused all matter and space to explode out from a common center, which is the reason for the observed expansion of the universe, i.e., it is a continuation of the original explosion. A Big Bang model without oscillation is inherently more satisfying to those who subscribe literally or intuitively to Judaeo-Christian belief because it implies the notion of a first cause--God being the creator of the Big Bang. Proteins are polymers formed from amino acids, which, as we have seen, were spontaneously synthesized and concentrated in the conditions of the primitive earth. Download preview PDF. There is also an accretion model, stating that the oceans were due mainly to watery comets crashing into the earth. Elliptical and irregular galaxies may also come from collisons between spiral galaxies. These are ways in which we integrate dimly perceived unconscious knowledge in a conscious symbolic synthesis. "History" plays the role of "God" for Marxists. Then relativity predicts a red shift. Audouze J., Vauclair S. (1980) The Evolution of Matter in the Universe. It is believed that at the center of each galaxy is a massive black hole. All paradigms are false or incomplete. Yet each of the models has a certain level of truth and meaning, and makes unique predictions. However, as the number of self-reproducing systems increased and the nutrient concentration decreased, this type of reproduction became increasingly difficult to perform, and it became necessary for the self-reproducing systems to concentrate nutrients. The concept of complexity is not usually treated precisely. The Crab is the result of a supernova (a stellar explosion) that was observed by Chinese astronomers in 1054 A.D. The earth had a reducing atmosphere. If these spheres have sufficient mass, they will become stars themselves, and we will have a multiple star system, such as abounds in the universe. There is a balance established between the gravity making the star collapse and the nuclear explosions making the star expand. Planck's constant varies from universe to universe. Their elements had been used to create the next rung on the ladder of evolution which their progeny continued to climb. At this point the helium nuclei themselves begin to fuse and release even more energy than from the fusion of hydrogen nuclei. If we simply put H2O, O2, C, and N in an environment approximating that of the primitive earth, we obtain the simple molecules CO2, H2, CH4, NH3 and HCN and, of course, some residual amounts of the original elements. The structure and distribution of galaxies seems better predicted by the steady state model than by the Big Bang model. The oxygen molecules, highly reactive, were almost entirely incorporated into chemical compounds with other elements so that there was very little free oxygen and consequently no ozone, O3, to shield the earth from ultraviolet radiation. (The first QSO's discovered were radio emitters and were called Quasi Stellar Active Radio Sources or "Quasars." No elementary particles in any universe are ever stable; they are always collapsing from within and from without. These conditions can be repeated in the laboratory today. A teaspoonful of matter from such a star would have a mass of over 60 tons. Matter and energy content of the Universe control its geometry and expansion.In the early Universe, the density was dominated by relativistic particles. For now we merely note that although natural selection may explain much of the evolutionary process it does not necessarily explain all of it. A good alternative to the Big Bang is the steady state model. Observational data indicate that quasars are starlike in visual appearance, since they have no observable shape as do the galaxies and appear as points of light as do the stars. Entropy Here we see another step in complexity of structure which occurs automatically by chemical laws under the conditions of the primitive earth. Cosmology In this stage, elements were highly reactive and combined with some oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen in the still-hot atmosphere to form chemical compounds such as the aluminum silicates and the pyrites, which form most of the surface of the earth. Dark matter is likely to be composed of one or more species of sub-atomic particles that interact very weakly with ordinary matter. An evolutionary process based solely on proteins or solely on nucleic acids is less thermodynamically effective than one based on the symbiosis of both proteins and nucleic acids, as is shown in the work of Manfred Eigen [217]. An oscillating universe is quite compatible with certain Eastern philosophies, such as Hinduism, which believe that because nature is a cyclic process, there is no true progress. The Expanding Universe. They were noncompetitive. This type of star is called a "red giant." Elliptical galaxies tend to consist mostly of old, red stars. The information content of a cell may be greater than the sun's. infinitely many bubbles, but each bubble must be of a smaller order of infinity than the bubble which contains it. There are objects in the sky which by their red shifts are estimated to be at extreme cosmological distances. Under this theory, it is assumed that all matter in the universe was once concentrated in a mass at a single point, possibly a sphere of zero diameter. The Big Bang was not an explosion in space, as the theory's name might suggest. Evolution of Matter in the Universe The quark-gluon plasma epoch is the earliest phase of the evolving Universe for which we can investigate microscopic processes in the laboratory. Another way of saying the same thing is to say that they are gradually transformed into their most probable state. Evolution of the Universe Kara Farnsworth, Christina King, Ryan Price University of Arizona The formation, expansion and evolution of the structure of the universe are determined by the ratio of varying densities of the matter components that comprise it. Only the mechanisms by which evolution occurs are disputed. The Evolutionary Perspective The nucleons themselves either (1) are being continuously created as a function of time, space, and matter (steady state model), (2) were created at a single point in time and space (the Big Bang), or (3) always existed and always will exist in either an infinite or a finite universe (e.g., Hannes Alfven's steady state model [10]). However, the early earth provided an adequate environment for all aspects of chemical evolution. The Evolution of Planets Chemical evolution is a characteristic of planets, but it is not confined to planets. And, as we have seen, this isolated evolution might have preceded the symbiotic evolution. As we indicated earlier, a basic building block for the evolution of the universe is hydrogen, which is the simplest and by far the most abundant element in the universe. "`The central thesis of Big Bang cosmology,' says Joseph Silk, `is that about 20 billion years ago, any two points in the observable universe were arbitrarily close together. The overwhelming majority of the mutations would increase their entropy and leave fewer progeny, but for every few billion mutations, one was, again by unlikely but not impossible chance, decreasing its entropy and becoming more effective in organizing and concentrating simple molecules into copies of itself. Using the Friedmann Equation to describe the evolution of the universe, we By studying old astronomical photographs we know that some quasars have had the same average brightness for at least 85 years, although in the past it was not known that these objects were quasars (they were thought to be ordinary stars). (Genesis 28:12). This is analogous to the decrease in pitch of a sound such as a train whistle which is moving away from us. Fully mature galaxies are in the foreground plane that shows galaxies as they looked less than 5 billion years ago. However, stars sufficiently massive to produce a red shift of this dimension can easily be shown to be unstable. Therefore, these complex self-reproducing polymers, the protocells, which were the precursors of living cells, must have been quite different from existing proteins, DNA, or living cells. Therefore, here we have an example of chemical evolution by natural selection. This is a phenomenon which is not yet measurable under laboratory conditions on earth. If the model is correct, a unified field theory may be derivable from it. Consider the speculations in the following section. The Evolutionary Perspective. However, they have a much higher reproductive efficiency in an environment which is becoming dilute in nutrients. This process seems predictable and seems determined by the existence of energy and current natural laws. Then, as the atmosphere cooled to about 1,000°C, water molecules in the form of steam began to condense from oxygen and hydrogen in the cooler, upper atmosphere and eventually precipitate as rain; but they would be gassified into steam as soon as the rain came in contact with the hot earth. Symbiosis The mathematical concept of a hierarchy of nested infinities applies here [556, 652]. Consider a universe of pure disassociated hydrogen with zero momentum. This service is more advanced with JavaScript available, An Introduction to Nuclear Astrophysics In the smaller planets the atmospheric hydrogen and helium will be almost completely lost to outer space. As a cluster forms via gravitational collapse, ordinary matter falling into the strong gravitational field interacts via frictional processes and shocks and thermalizes at a high temperature in the … Eventually so many of the organic molecules essential to reproduction were tied up in the increasingly stable and efficient autocatalyzing molecules that a new type of reproduction becamenecessary. The Friedmann equations start with the simplifying assumption that the universe is spatially homogeneous and isotropic, i.e. The upholding of some specific philosophical or ideological premise at the cost of simplicity and/or predictability is contrary to the scientific spirit. Our own galaxy seems to be a spiral of over 100,000 light-years in diameter, very similar to Andromeda, which is the closest major galaxy at about two million light-years distance. The entire pattern of the evolution of the universe seems to be based on autopoiesis between complementary pairs of entities such as protons and electrons, proteins and nucleic acids, or males and females. We will have become as we always were, matter within the larger universe. At the time of our local Big Bang, our universe was one giant quasar. Among the most distant parts of the universe which can be observed today is a quasar discovered in 1986, estimated at over 13.5 billion light-years away, which is to say that the light reaching us from there today began traveling toward us over 13.5 billion years ago. As the sun was condensing by gravity into a dense cloud it began to spin. Cosmological Synthesis. Many modern theologians, including some within the Catholic Church, use this figurative interpretation. 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